Vegetos
(An International Journal of Plant Research & Biotechnology)
Dynamics of land use land cover and tree vegetation structure in Acacia nilotica riverine forests in Sudan
*Article not assigned to an issue yet
Research Articles | Published: 26 April, 2025
First Page: 0
Last Page: 0
Views: 532
Keywords: n Acacia nilotican , Forest dynamics, Riverine forests, Anthropogenic pressures, Sustainable management
Abstract
Riverine forests in Sudan are unique ecosystems that provide habitats for diverse flora and fauna. Despite this distinctive function, there is lack of information about their composition and its spatio-temporal dynamics. This study aimed to investigate the dynamics of land use land cover (LULC) and tree vegetation structure in Acacia nilotica trees, in Remaila Riverine Forest Reserve, over the past 20 years. The study used Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Land Surface Temperature (LST) analysis, and forest inventory data to assess the status and spatio-temporal changes of A. nilotica trees. Findings reveal significant fluctuations in NDVI values, indicating a decline in forest health, particularly marked in 2023. The LULC analysis highlights a drastic reduction of about 50% in dense forest areas between 2003 and 2023, with a corresponding increase in open forest and bare lands. The tree density, basal area, and volume in dense forest sites were three times and double that of open and moderate forests with significant differences across the sites (F2, 99 = 172.4 and p = 0.001; F2, 99 = 193.6 and p < 0.001; F2, 99 = 187.3 and p < 0.001, respectively). These low values of dendrometric parameters in the open and moderate forest sites are attributed to anthropogenic pressures like overharvesting and grazing that were intensively practiced in the study area. This research underscores the urgent need for restoration efforts to rehabilitate the degraded areas and enhance the reserve resilience, with consideration to stakeholder interests and sustainable management.
References
Abdelaziz SM, Lemine FMM, Tfeil HO, Filali-Maltouf A, Boukhary AOMS (2020) Phytochemicals, antioxidant activity and ethnobotanical uses of balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. Fruits from the arid zone of Mauritania, Northwest Africa. Plants 9(3):9–12. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9030401
Adam YO, Pretzsch J, Pettenella D (2013) Contribution of non-timber forest products livelihood strategies to rural development in drylands of Sudan: potentials and failures. Agric Syst 117:90–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2012.12.008
Ahmed A, Rotich B, Czimber K (2024) Assessment of the environmental impacts of conflict-driven internally displaced persons: A sentinel-2 satellite based analysis of land use/ cover changes in the Kas locality, Darfur, Sudan. PLoS ONE 19(5 May):1–19. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304034
Aka KSR, Akpavi S, Dibi NH, Kabo-Bah AT, Gyilbag A, Boamah E (2023) Toward Understanding land use land cover changes and their effects on land surface temperature in Yam production area, Côte D’Ivoire, Gontougo region, using remote sensing and machine learning tools (Google Earth Engine). Front Remote Sens 4(August):1–22. https://doi.org/10.3389/frsen.2023.1221757
Almohamad H (2020) Impact of land cover change due to armed conflicts on soil erosion in the basin of the Northern al-kabeer river in Syria using the Rusle model. Water (Switzerland) 12(12):1–35. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12123323
Alzubair MAH, Hamdan SAM (2020) Deterioration of blue nile forests and its ecological effects in the Gezira State– Sudan. MOJ Ecol Environ Sci 5(1):34–40. https://doi.org/10.15406/mojes.2020.05.00174
Amahowe IO, Gaoue OG, Natta AK, Piponiot C, Zobi IC, Hérault B (2018) Functional traits partially mediate the effects of chronic anthropogenic disturbance on the growth of a tropical tree. AoB PLANTS 10(3):1–13. https://doi.org/10.1093/aobpla/ply036
Arosa ML, Bastos R, Cabral JA, Freitas H, Costa SR, Santos M (2017) Long-term sustainability of Cork oak agro-forests in the Iberian Peninsula: A model-based approach aimed at supporting the best management options for the Montado conservation. Ecol Model 343:68–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2016.10.008
Arun PV, Katiyar SK (2014) Intelligent adaptive resampling technique for the processing of remotely sensed imagery. Ann GIS 20(1):53–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/19475683.2013.862298
Assogbadjo AE, Kakaï RLG, Sinsin B, Pelz D (2010) Structure of Anogeissus Leiocarpa guill., Perr. Natural stands in relation to anthropogenic pressure within Wari-Maro forest reserve in Benin. Afr J Ecol 48(3):644–653. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2009.01160.x
Ball L, Tzanopoulos J (2020) Livestock browsing affects the species composition and structure of cloud forest in the Dhofar mountains of Oman. Appl Veg Sci 23(3):363–376. https://doi.org/10.1111/avsc.12493
Belenok V, Noszczyk T, Hebryn-Baidy L, Kryachok S (2021) Investigating anthropogenically transformed landscapes with remote sensing. Remote Sens Applications: Soc Environ 24(September):100635. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsase.2021.100635
Benítez-Badillo G, Lascurain-Rangel M, Álvarez-Palacios JL, Gómez-Díaz JA, Avendaño-Reyes S, Dávalos-Sotelo R, López-Acosta JC (2018) Influence of Land-Use changes (1993 and 2013) in the distribution of wild edible fruits from Veracruz (Mexico). Trop Conserv Sci 11:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940082918758662
Costanza R, de Groot R, Sutton P, van der Ploeg S, Anderson SJ, Kubiszewski I, Farber S, Turner RK (2014) Changes in the global value of ecosystem services. Glob Environ Change 26(1):152–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.04.002
Czerkawski M, Atkinson R, Michie C, Tachtatzis C (2023) SatelliteCloudGenerator: controllable cloud and shadow synthesis for Multi-Spectral optical satellite images. Remote Sens 15(17):1–23. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15174138
Daiyoub A, Gelabert P, Saura-Mas S, Vega-Garcia C (2023) War and deforestation: using remote sensing and machine learning to identify the War-Induced deforestation in Syria 2010–2019. Land 12(8):1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12081509
Dammag AQ, Dai J, Cong G, Derhem BQ, Latif HZ (2024) Assessing and predicting changes of ecosystem service values in response to land use/land cover dynamics in Ibb City, Yemen: a three-decade analysis and future outlook. Int J Digit Earth 17(1):1–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/17538947.2024.2323174
Deng Y, Wang S, Bai X, Tian Y, Wu L, Xiao J, Chen F, Qian Q (2018) Relationship among land surface temperature and LUCC, NDVI in typical karst area. Sci Rep 8(1):1–12. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-19088-x
Derebe Y, Girma Z (2020) Diet composition and preferences of Bohor Reedbuck (Redunca redunca) in the compound of Alage college, central rift Valley of Ethiopia. Ecol Evol 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.6939
Dermawan BA, Herdiyeni Y, Prasetyo LB, Siswoyo A (2018) Predicting the spread of Acacia nilotica using maximum entropy modeling. Telkomnika (Telecommunication Comput Electron Control) 16(2):703–712. https://doi.org/10.12928/TELKOMNIKA.v16i2.6894
El fallah K, kharrim E, K., Belghyti D (2024) Land use land cover change detection by using remote sensing in Meknes province, Morocco with an indicator based (DPSIR) approach. Vegetos 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42535-024-01110-z
El Garouani M, Amyay M, Lahrach A, Jarar Oulidi H (2021) Exploring the relationship between LST, LULC and NDVI in Saïss plain using Geospatial techniques. E3S Web Conferences 314(04001):1–5. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202131404001
Endale Y, Derero A, Argaw M, Muthuri C (2017) Farmland tree species diversity and Spatial distribution pattern in semi-arid East Shewa, Ethiopia. Forests Trees Livelihoods 26(3):199–214. https://doi.org/10.1080/14728028.2016.1266971
Ewunetu A, Simane B, Teferi E, Zaitchik BF (2021) Land cover change in the blue nile river headwaters: farmers’ perceptions, pressures, and satellite-based mapping. Land 10(1):1–25. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10010068
FNC SFNC (2021) National Forest Inventory Report
Gadallah NAH, Hano AIA, Diab E, Omer G (2021) Characterizing Conservative and protective needs of the aridland forests of Sudan. J Forestry Res 32(6):2365–2373. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-021-01341-9
Gaisberger H, Legay S, Andre C, Loo J, Azimov R, Aaliev S, Bobokalonov F, Mukhsimov N, Kettle C, Vinceti B (2020) Diversity under threat: connecting genetic diversity and threat mapping to set conservation priorities for Juglans regia L. populations in central Asia. Front Ecol Evol 8(June):1–18. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2020.00171
Gebeyehu G, Soromessa T, Bekele T, Teketay D (2019a) Carbon stocks and factors affecting their storage in dry Afromontane forests of Awi zone, Northwestern Ethiopia. J Ecol Environ 43(1):1–18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41610-019-0105-8
Gebeyehu G, Soromessa T, Bekele T, Teketay D (2019b) Species composition, stand structure, and regeneration status of tree species in dry Afromontane forests of Awi zone, Northwestern Ethiopia. Ecosyst Health Sustain 5(1):199–215. https://doi.org/10.1080/20964129.2019.1664938
Ghebrezgabher MG, Yang T, Yang X, Eyassu Sereke T (2020) Assessment of NDVI variations in responses to climate change in the Horn of Africa. Egypt J Remote Sens Space Sci 23(3):249–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrs.2020.08.003
Guha S, Govil H (2020) Land surface temperature and normalized difference vegetation index relationship: a seasonal study on a tropical City. SN Appl Sci 2(10). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-03458-8
Gupta SK, Pandey AC (2021) Spectral aspects for monitoring forest health in extreme season using multispectral imagery. Egypt J Remote Sens Space Sci 24(3):579–586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrs.2021.07.001
Gurashi NA, Mohammed EMI, Mohammed EMI (2023) Modeling carbon stock-dendrometric parameters relationship and tree species diversity in Abu-Gadaf natural forest reserve, Sudan. J Agric Forestry Res 2(6):1–10
Hasoba AMM, Siddig AAH, Yagoub YE (2020) Exploring tree diversity and stand structure of savanna woodlands in southeastern Sudan. J Arid Land 12(4):609–617. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40333-020-0076-8
Hassaballah K, Mohamed YA, Uhlenbrook S (2016) The Mayas wetlands of the Dinder and Rahad: tributaries of the Blue Nile Basin (Sudan). The Wetland Book 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6173-5
Hassan TT (2019) The use of non-timber forest products as potential adaptation measures in the Sudan’s forestry sector. University of Bahri
Hassan TT, Mohammed EMI, Magid TDA (2022) Exploring the current status of forest stock in the areas bordering Dinder biosphere reserve, Sudan. J Forestry Nat Resour 1(1):11–24
Hassan, Tag (2017) In-depth analysis of drivers of deforestation & forest degradation. Sudan REDD + Programme, final report: vol. II. Issue June
Hofhansl F, Chacón-Madrigal E, Fuchslueger L, Jenking D, Morera-Beita A, Plutzar C, Silla F, Andersen KM, Buchs DM, Dullinger S, Fiedler K, Franklin O, Hietz P, Huber W, Quesada CA, Rammig A, Schrodt F, Vincent AG, Weissenhofer A, Wanek W (2020) Climatic and edaphic controls over tropical forest diversity and vegetation carbon storage. Sci Rep 10(1):1–11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-61868-5
Ibrahim E, Paity B, Hassan T, Idris E, Yousif T (2018) Effect of tree species, tree variables and topography on CO2 concentration in badous riverine forest reserve– Blue Nile, Sudan. Univ Kordofan J Nat Resour Environ Stud 5(1):1–12
Idrissa B, Soumana I, Issiaka Y, Karimou A, Mahamane A, Mahamane S, Weber J (2018) Trend and structure of populations of Balanites aegyptiaca in parkland agroforestsin Western Niger. Annual Res Rev Biology 22(4):1–12. https://doi.org/10.9734/arrb/2018/38650
Jech J, Komárková J, Bhattacharya D (2023) Comparison of automatic classification methods for identification of ice surfaces from Unmanned-Aerial-Vehicle-Borne RGB imagery. Appl Sci (Switzerland) 13(20):1–14. https://doi.org/10.3390/app132011400
Kafy AA, Naim MNH, Subramanyam G, Faisal A, Al, Ahmed NU, Rakib A, Al, Kona MA, Sattar GS (2021) Cellular automata approach in dynamic modelling of land cover changes using RapidEye images in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Environ Challenges 4(March). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2021.100084
Kochare T, Tamir B, Kechero Y (2018) Palatability and animal preferences of plants in small and fragmented land holdings: the case of Wolayta zone, Southern Ethiopia. Agricultural Res Technology: Open Access J 14(3). https://doi.org/10.19080/artoaj.2018.14.555922
Kumar D, Shekhar S (2015) Statistical analysis of land surface temperature-vegetation indexes relationship through thermal remote sensing. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 121(2):39–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.07.004
Kupidura P, Lesisz K (2023) The impact of the type and Spatial resolution of a source image on the effectiveness of texture analysis. Remote Sens 15(1):1–24. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15010170
Kwan C, Ayhan B, Budavari B, Lu Y, Perez D, Li J, Bernabe S, Plaza A (2020) Deep learning for land cover classification using only a few bands. Remote Sens 12(12):1–17. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12122000
Lameck AS, Rotich B, Ahmed A, Kipkulei H, Mnyawi SR, Czimber K (2025) Land use/land cover changes due to gold mining in the Singida region, central Tanzania: environmental and socio-economic implications. Environ Monit Assess 197(4):1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-025-13921-x
Li Z, Chen X, Qi J, Xu C, An J, Chen J (2023) Accuracy assessment of land cover products in China from 2000 to 2020. Sci Rep 13(1):1–11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-39963-0
Ligate EJ, Wu C, Chen C (2019) Investigation of tropical coastal forest regeneration after farming and livestock grazing exclusion. J Forestry Res 30(5):1873–1884. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-018-0792-5
Liu J, Bai X, Yin Y, Wang W, Li Z, Ma P (2021) Spatial patterns and associations of tree species at different developmental stages in a montane secondary temperate forest of Northeastern China. PeerJ 9:1–14. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.11517
Mallegowda P, Rengaian G, Krishnan J, Niphadkar M (2015) Assessing habitat quality of forest-corridors through NDVI analysis in dry tropical forests of South India: implications for conservation. Remote Sens 7(2):1619–1639. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs70201619
Maua JO, Tsingalia HM, Cheboiwo J, Odee D (2020) Population structure and regeneration status of Woody species in a remnant tropical forest: A case study of South Nandi forest, Kenya. Global Ecol Conserv 21:e00820. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00820
Minière A, von Schuckmann K, Sallée JB, Vogt L (2023) Robust acceleration of Earth system heating observed over the past six decades. Sci Rep 13(1):1–13. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-49353-1
Mohammed EMI, Hamid EAM, Ndakidemi PA, Treydte AC (2022) The stocking density and regeneration status of Balanites aegyptiaca in Dinder biosphere reserve, Sudan. Trees Forests People 8:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tfp.2022.100259
Mohammed EMI, Hammed AME, Minnick TJ, Ndakidemi PA, Treydte AC (2021) Livestock browsing threatens the survival of Balanites aegyptiaca seedlings and saplings in Dinder biosphere reserve, Sudan. J Sustainable Forestry 41(9):1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/10549811.2021.1935279
Mohiuddin G, Mund JP (2024) Spatiotemporal analysis of land surface temperature in response to land use and land cover changes: A remote sensing approach. Remote Sens 16(7):1–22. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16071286
Muhammad H-R, Ashfaq A, Ahsan R, Alharby MU, Alzahrani HF, Bamagoos YM, Hakeem AA, Ahmad KR, Nasim S, Ali W, Mansour S, F., Sabagh EL (2022) A. Impact of climate change on agricultural production; Issues, challenges, and opportunities in Asia. Frontiers in Plant Science 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.925548
Murillo-Sandoval PJ (2023) Disentangling the landscape during armed conflicts and postpeace agreements: clues from Colombia’s Andes-Amazon region. Integr Environ Assess Manag 19(2):355–359. https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.4689
Musa FI, Sahoo UK, Eltahir MES, Magid A, Adlan TD, Abdelrhman OE, H. A., Abdelkarim AA (2023) Contribution of non-wood forest products for household income in rural area of Sudan– A review. J Agric Food Res 14(September):100801. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2023.100801
Nogovitcyn A, Shakhmatov R, Morozumi T, Tei S, Miyamoto Y, Shin N, Maximov TC, Sugimoto A (2023) Historical variation in the normalized difference vegetation index compared with soil moisture in a Taiga forest ecosystem in Northeastern Siberia. Biogeosciences 20(15):3185–3201. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-3185-2023
Portela AP, Gonçalves JF, Durance I, Vieira C, Honrado J (2023) Riparian forest response to extreme drought is influenced by Climatic context and canopy structure. Sci Total Environ 881(April). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163128
Rajpar MN, Rajpar AH, Zakaria M (2024) Riverine forest as a significant habitat to harbor a wide range of bird species. Brazilian J Biology 84(e256160):1–14. https://doi.org/10.1590/1519-6984.256160
Sandeep P, Reddy GPO, Jegankumar R, Arun Kumar KC (2021) Modeling and assessment of land degradation vulnerability in Semi-arid ecosystem of Southern India using Temporal satellite data, AHP and GIS. Environ Model Assess 26(2):143–154. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10666-020-09739-1
Song Z, Yang H, Huang X, Yu W, Huang J, Ma M (2021) The Spatiotemporal pattern and influencing factors of land surface temperature change in China from 2003 to 2019. Int J Appl Earth Obs Geoinf 104:102537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2021.102537
Sunkur R, Mauremootoo J (2024) Spatio-temporal analysis of an invasive alien species, Vachellia Nilotica, on Rodrigues Island, Mauritius, using geographic information systems and remote sensing techniques. Indonesian J Earth Sci 4(1):1–17. https://doi.org/10.52562/injoes.2024.835
Tiwari AK, Kanchan R (2024) Analytical study on the relationship among land surface temperature, land use/land cover and spectral indices using Geospatial techniques. Discover Environ 2(1):1–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44274-023-00021-1
UNEP (2007) Sudan post-conflict environmental assessment
Venter ZS, Barton DN, Chakraborty T, Simensen T, Singh G (2022) Global 10 m land use land cover datasets: A comparison of dynamic world, world Cover and Esri Land Cover. Remote Sens 14(16):1–19. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14164101
Younis A, Younis I, Mustafa HF, Ballal MA (2018) Perception of the local community towards utilization and role of non-wood forest products in Bahr Alarab locality, East Darfur State, Sudan. IOSR J Agric Veterinary Sci (IOSR-JAVS) 11(6):74–81. https://doi.org/10.9790/2380-1106017481
Yuan X, Tian J, Reinartz P (2023) Learning-Based Near-Infrared band simulation with applications on Large-Scale landcover classification. Sensors 23(9):1–21. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23094179
Author Information
Department of Forest Management Science, Faculty of Forest Sciences and Technology, University of Gezira, Wad Medani, Sudan