Vegetos
(An International Journal of Plant Research & Biotechnology)
Impact of flowering stages on essential oil composition and yield in Egyptian chamomile
*Article not assigned to an issue yet
Research Articles | Published: 07 December, 2025
First Page: 0
Last Page: 0
Views: 80
Keywords: Flowering, α-bisabolol, Chamazulene, Glandular trichomes, GC–MS analysis
Abstract
Due to the biological traits of Egyptian chamomile flowers (Matricaria chamomilla L.), their essential oil is a valuable natural raw material that is used in food preservation and pharmaceutical industries. Essential oil composition varies significantly with flowering stages. This study set out to characterize the essential oil composition of Egyptian chamomile flowers, which were created during the stages of initiation, differentiation, onset, fullness, end, and maturation. Using Clevenger-style approach, essential oils from various blooming phases were separated; however, gas chromatography and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry were used to identify their contents. Results were subjected to one-way analysis of variance. Flower yields and composition of essential oils varied throughout the different stages of bloom. The main chemical group of flower essential oils that was obtained throughout different stages of flowering was oxygenated sesquiterpenes, whereas the main constituents were α-bisabolol oxide A, α-bisabolol, and chamazulene. The highest levels of flower yield (2.1 and 0.9 kg m−2 for fresh and dry weights), essential oil output (0.9% or 8.1 g m−2), oxygenated sesquiterpenes (77.3%), α-bisabolol oxide A (38.7%), α-bisabolol (17.4%), and chamazulene (15.9%) were reported in flowers that were harvested at the fullness stage. This study showed that the variations in chamomile essential oil were caused by the plants reliance on flowering stages, which means that variations in its biological activity are to be expected; however, chamomile essential oil is mainly used in the manufacture of some fragrances, perfumes and soaps. Also it is used to preserve food and make drugs for skin diseases, cancer, and issues with cardiovascular and immune systems.
References
Abou-Zeid EN (2000) Aromatic Plants and their Agricultural and Medicinal Products. Arab House for Publishing and Distribution, Cairo Egypt
Adams RP (1995) Identification of Essential Oil Components by Gas Chromatography / Mass spectrometry. Allured Publ. Corp, Carol Stream IL
Afshari M, Rahimmalek M (2021) Variation in essential oil composition, anatomical, and antioxidant characteristics of Achillea filipendulina Lam. as affected by different phenological stages. J Essent Oil Res 33(3):283–298
Ahmed AMA, Talaat IM, Khalid AK (2017) Citric acid affects Melissa officinalis L. essential oil under saline soil. Asian J Crop Sci 9(2):40–49
Ahmed AMA, El-Kady FA, Khalid AK (2018) Morphological and chemical characters of Petroselinum crispum (Mill) subjected to some biostimulants. Asian J Plant Sci 17(2):96–106
Ali AH (2022) The important of essential oil extracted from natural medicinal plant for biological activity. Nat Prod Chem Res 10(7):1–3
Amer HM, Wahba HE, Marrez DA, Salama AB, Khalid KA (2019) Growth and chemical constituents of cardoon plant in response to foliar application of various algal extracts. Biocat Agric Biotechnol 21:101336
Baydar H, Erbas S (2009a) Effects of harvest time and drying temperature on essential oil content and composition in lavandin (Lavandula x intermedia Emerice x Loisel.). Turk J Field Crop 13:23–31
Baydar H, Erbas S (2009b) Effects of harvest time and drying temperature on essential oil content and composition in lavandin (Lavandula x intermedia Emerice x Loisel). Turk J Field Crop 13:23–31
Boeckelmann A (2008) Monoterpene Production and Regulation in Lavenders (Lavandula angustifolia and Lavandula × intermedia). University of British Columbia, Okanagan. MSC Thesis.
Boira H, Blanquer A (1998) Environmental factors affecting chemical variability of essential oils in Thymus piperella L. Biochem Syst Ecol 26(8):811–822
Bozin B, Mimica-Dukic N, Anackov G, Zlatkovic B, Igic R (2006a) Variability of content and composition of Mentha aquatica L. (Lamiaceae) essential oil in different phenophases. J Essent Oil-Bear Plants 9(3):223–229
Bozin B, Mimica-Dukic N, Anackov G, Zlatkovic B, Igic R (2006b) Variability of content and composition of Mentha aquatica L. (Lamiaceae) essential oil in different phenophases. J Essent Oil-Bear Plants 9:223–229
Burke CC, Wildung MR, Croteau R (1999) Geranyl diphosphate synthase: cloning, expression, and characterization of this prenyl transferase as a heterodimer. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 96(23):13062–13067
Cantor M, Vlas N, Szekely-Varga ZS, Jucan D, Zaharia A (2018a) The influence distillation time and the flowering phenophase on quantity and quality of the essential oil of Lavandula angustifolia cv. ‘Codreanca.’ Rom Biotechnol Lett 23(6):14146–14152
Cantor M, Vlas N, Szekely-Varga Z S, Jucan D, Zaharia A (2018) The influence of distillation time and the flowering phenophase on quantity and quality of the essential oil of Lavandula angustifolia cv. ‘Codreanca’. Rom Biotechnol Lett 23 (6): 14146- 14152.
Carretero-Paulet L, Cairó A, Talavera D, Saura A, Imperial S, Rodríguez-Concepción BA (2013) Functional and evolutionary analysis of DXL1, anon-essential gene encoding a 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate synthase like protein in Arabidopsis thaliana. Gene 54(1):40–53
Chakira A, Garcia C, Soria C, Minier J, Chillet M (2022) Effect of flower development stages on the dynamics of volatile compounds in ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata) essential oil. Hort 8(11):986
Chegeni R, Zarinkamar F, Rezayian M, Nazari M (2022) Effects of growth stage on essential oils and gene expression of terpene synthases in Mentha aquatica L. Microbiol, Metabol Biotechnol 5(2):103–113
Clark RJ, Menary RC (1980) Environmental effects on peppermint (Mentha piperita L.). i. Effect of day length, photon flux density, night temperature and day temperature on the yield and composition of peppermint oil. Funct Plant Biol 7:685–692
Clevenger JF (1928) Apparatus for determination of essential oil. J Amer Pharm Asso 17(4):346–349
Demissie ZA, Sarker LS, Mahmoud SS (2011) Cloning and functional characterization of α-phellandrene synthase from Lavandula angustifolia. Planta 233(4):85–696
Détár E, Zámbori-Németh É, Gosztola B, Harmath A, Ladányi M, Pluhár Z (2021) Ontogenesis and harvest time are crucial for high quality lavender - role of the flower development in essential oil properties. Ind Crop Prod 163:113334
Duriyaprapan S, Britten EJ, Basford KE (1986) The effect of temperature on growth, oil yield and oil quality of Japanese mint. Ann Bot 58(5):729–736
EL-Sharnoubry ME, Azab E, Alotaibi S, Saleh DI (2019) Influence of air temperature and soil moisture on growth and chemical composition of geranium plants. Pak J Bot 51(1):1–6
Foucart T (1982) Analyse Factorielle, Programmatiol Sur Micro- ordinateur. Masson ITCF Paris France ISBN-13: 978–2225764509.
Gardiner P (2007) Complementary, holistic, and integrative medicine: chamomile. Pediatr Rev 28:16–18
Guitton Y, Nicolè F, Moja S, Valot N, Legrand S, Jullien F, Legendre L (2009) Differential accumulation of volatile terpene and terpene synthase mRNAs during lavender (Lavandula angustifolia and L. × intermedia) inflorescence development. Physiol Plant 138(2):150–163
Guitton Y, Nicole F, Moja S, Benabdelkader T, Valot N, Legrand S, Jullien F, Legendre L (2010) Lavender inflorescence. A model to study regulation of terpenes synthesis. Plant Signal Behav 5:749–751
Hadef Y, Kaloustian J, Chefrour A, Mikail C, Abou L, Giodani R, Nikolay A, Portugal H (2007) Chemical composition and variability of the essential oil of Thymus numidicus Poir. from Algeria. Acta Bot Gallica 154(2):265–274
Hassiotis CN, Ntana F, Lazari DM, Poulios S, Vlachonasios KE (2014a) Environmental and developmental factors affect essential oil production and quality of Lavandula angustifolia during flowering period. Indu Crop Prod 62:359–366
Hassiotis CN, Ntana F, Lazari DM, Poulios S, Vlachonasios KE (2014b) Environmental and developmental factors affect essential oil production and quality of Lavandula angustifolia during flowering period. Ind Crops Prod 62:359–366
Howyzeh MS, Noori SAS, Vahid SJ (2018) Essential oil profiling of Ajowan (Trachyspermum ammi) industrial medicinal plant. Indus Crops Prod 119:255–259
Johnson CB, Kirby J, Naxakis G, Pearson S (1999) Substantial UV-mediated induction of essential oils in sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.). Phytochem 51(4):507–510
Kaloustian J, Pauli AM, Pastor J (2000) Evolution of camphor and others components in the essential oils of two labiate species during the biological cycle. Analusis 28(4):308–315
Khalid AK (2012) Effect of NP and foliar spray on growth and chemical compositions of some medicinal Apiaceae plants grow in arid regions in Egypt. J Soil Sci Plant Nutr 12(3):617–632
Khalid AK, Ahmed AMA (2021) Effect of soil type on grapefruit and shaddock essential oils. J Soil Sci Plant Nut 21(3):2048–2056
Khalid KA, EL- Ghorab AH (2006) The effect of presowing low temperature on essential oil content and chemical composition of Calendula officinalis L. J Essent Oil Bear Plants 9(9):32–41
Khalid AK, Cai W, Ahmed MAA (2009) Effect of harvesting treatments and distillation methods on the essential oil of lemon balm and apple geranium plants. J Essent Oil Bear Plant 12(2):120–130
Khalid AK, El-Gohary AE, Ahmed AMA (2020a) Effect of growing seasons on the leaf essential oil composition of Citrus species that are cultivated in Egypt. J Essent Oil Res 32(4):296–307
Khalid AK, Essa EF, Ismaiel HMH, Elsayed AAA (2020b) Effects of geographical locations on essential oil composition of navel orange leaves and flowers. J Essent Oil Bear Plants 23(1):139–148
Kowalski R, Sugier D, Sugier P, Kołodziej B (2015) Evaluation of the chemical composition of essential oils with respect to the maturity of flower heads of Arnica montana L. and Arnica chamissonis Less. cultivated for industry. Ind Crop Prod 76:857–865
Kual PN, Rao BRR, Bahttacharya AK, Singh K (1999) Effect of weather parameters on yield and quality of the essential oil of rose scented geranium (Pelargonium species). Agric Sci Dig 19(2):84–86
Lane A, Boecklemann A, Woronuk G, Sarker L, Mahmoud SA (2010) A genomics resource for investigating regulation of essential oil production in Lavandula angustifolia. Planta 231(4):835–845
Lu X, Zhang L, Zhang F, Jiang W, Shen Q, Zhang L, Tang KA (2013) AaORA, a trichome-specific AP2/ERF transcription factor of Artemisia annua, is a positive regulator in the artemisinin biosynthetic pathway and in disease resistance to Botrytis cinerea. New Phytol 198(4):1191–1202
Mirzahosseini SM, Noori SAS, Amanzadeh Y, Javid MG, Howyzeh MS (2017) Phytochemical assessment of some native ajowan (Therachyspermum ammi L.) ecotypes in Iran. Ind Crops Prod 105:142–147
Nemeth E (2005a) Changes in essential oil quantity and quality influenced by ontogenetic factors. Acta Hort 675(1):23
Nemeth E (2005b) Changes in essential oil quantity and quality influenced by ontogenetic factors. Acta Hortic 675(1):159–165
Peer WA, Langenheim JH (1998) Influence of phytochrome on leaf monoterpene variation in Satureja douglasii. Biochem Syst Ecol 26(1):25–34
Rios-Estepa R, Lange I, Lee JM, Lange BM (2010) Mathematical modelling guided evaluation of biochemical, developmental, environmental, and genotypic determinants of essential oil composition and yield in peppermint leaves. Plant Physiol 152(5):2105–2119
Simmons D, Parsons RF (1987) Seasonal variation in the volatile leaf oils of two Eucalyptus species. Biochem Syst Ecol 15(2):209–215
Snedecor GW, Cochran W G (1990) Statistical Methods, 11th Ed. Iowa State Univ Press Ames Iowa USA.
Tommasi L, Negro C, De Bellis L, Miceli A (2008) Essential oil variability of Satureja cuneifolia Ten. growing wild in Southern Puglia (Italy). J Essent Oil Res 20(4):295–302
Ueoka H, Sasaki K, Miyawaki T, Ichino T, Tatsumi K, Suzuki S, Yamamoto NS et al (2020) A cytosol-localized geranyl diphosphate synthase from Lithospermum erythrorhizon and its molecular evolution. Plant Physiol 182(4):1933–1945
Weiss EA (1997) Essential Oil Crops. CAB International
Wolfender J, Marti L, Thomas G, Bertrand A (2015) Current approaches and challenges for the metabolite profiling of complex natural extracts. J Chromatogr 1382:136–164
Zhao Y, Chen Y, Gao M, Yin H, Wu L, Wang Y (2020) Overexpression of geranyl diphosphate synthase small subunit 1 (LcGPPS. SSU1) enhances the monoterpene content and biomass. Ind Crop Prod 143(1):111926
Author Information
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Department, National Research Centre, Dokki, Cairo, Egypt